CharonY

Nothing like threatening/conducting war crimes to hold on to power. Worked for Netanyahu.

While we are at variations on how surnames can be formed, I always found the Spanish one to be fun. There, folks have two surnames, based on the first surname of each parent. This can be interesting if the surnames are composites. Or if Basque names are intermingled, where the surname is based on the father's surname and the family town.

How do you define the "as we know" part? I think the oldest evidence of the custom will likely depend on how long written records have survived. My wild guess is that the development of surnames will coincide with the formation of sufficient large settlements which made it more relevant to distinguish membership to different families and might predate a lot of the written records (those that survived, at least). With regard to the earliest documented surnames, I randomly googled the Uruk period and found this: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kushim_(Uruk_period)

Take away where? The white House is where all the crazies aggregate.

Yes, oxidation in principle is the loss, and reduction the gain of an electron. In biology, iron is often part of an enzymes that are involved in these processes where it switches between Fe(II) to Fe(III). But obviously there area also other types redoxenzymes. The broader point here is that this reaction is not "bad" as asked in OP. Rather they are a biological necessity.

It is not fundamentally bad. Oxidation is merely a chemical process and it also has many important biological functions. For example, we oxidize nutrients to create reducing equivalents so that we can generate energy (via oxidative phosphorylation). Rust requires iron (it is an iron (hydr)oxide. So that is not the issue. What can happen is that during respiration reactive oxygen species are generated. This is mostly due to leakage from the ubiquinon pool as part of the aforementioned oxidative phosphorylation. These species are kind of aggressive and can indeed lead to damages, unless they are dealt with the many mechanisms in cells to neutralize them (e.g. superoxide dismutases, catalases, peroxidases etc.). Nothing. If we stop oxidation, we stop critical biochemical processes and we just die. Not due to oxidation, but because our cells run out of energy (well and other critical processes). Redox reactions are kind of the essentials for metabolism. I mean, yes. Anything that is not made of iron will, by definition, not rust.

Perhaps interestingly, the number of meningitidis cases is also increasing across parts of Canada, in part likely associated with a drop in vaccinations but as with other sporadic outbreaks the precise reasons are usually unknown.

Huh, the URL should have been a hint to me, shouldn't it? Sorry I have been grading and I swear my own ability to read degrades with each student essay I am reading. History FactsWere People in Medieval Times Always Drunk?It’s often said that people during the Middle Ages, a period that lasted from roughly the end of the fifth century through the 15th century, drank beer instead of water because the drinking water at t

This is a rather common myth (I have seen in decades back in Scientific American). Here is an article about it https://historyfacts.com/famous-figures/article/benjamin-franklin-facts/

While I think the distinction might be important, it is also a fair bit more complicated. Both concepts are heavily debated in lit. Instinct, for example, has become a catch-all term in animal behaviour for many aspects that are likely entirely distinct mechanisms. Much of how we understand instinct is based on works of folks like Konrad Lorenz, which were great at its time and immensely influential. However, modern behavioural sciences, especially in conjunction with advances in the area of neurobiology, but also a much more individualized approach to behavioural observation. For example, for a time behaviour like head-scratching in bird was a prime example of instinctual behaviour (IIRC, it was about the crossing of a hindleg over the wing). In early papers parallels were drawn between how birds and other vertebrates do it, suggesting an evolutionary root how this "clumsy" behaviour is established and universal. However, in the 80s there were reports that this behaviour is much less universal, and especially younger birds will use a different method (leg under wing) and that depending on how they perch and where they center of gravity is, they will switch. So starting in 80s there was already some rumbling that things that appeared to be universal behaviour, and thus instinctual might actually be more learned and adapted to situations than originally thought. I have not been doing much research in that particular area, except occasionally grabbing some papers to have a good time, but it seems to me that though has gained massive momentum around the 2010s where behavioral scientist started to work much more individualized with animals, instead of the traditional approach (which I also learned as student) to create broad categories over large populations to make statistical analyses easier. The result was in many animals folks started to find evidence of higher reasoning (though there is bias regarding species being used, such as crows) and that the idea of an instinct has become much more nuanced. And because it is hard to nail down, it is something that (at least the papers I read) is not used anymore, at least in the formerly used way. Rather, it is being framed as a disposition towards certain behaviours, modified by learning (i.e. experience). Now, this is not to say that there are no hardwired-reflexive pathways, but where once animal behavior has been described as repetitive and instinctual, I think the research is changing its thinking about that. This is an analogous development to how we increasingly see the nature vs nurture debate or the role of genetics in complex physiological outcomes. Also as a side, it is a bit interesting to me that in the evolutionary psych area (which itself has issues) the older concepts of instinct seem to still be more prevalent than in behavioral sciences.

I think the title might be the wrong way around. What I mean is that first animals at some point developed the ability to: Which I interpret as the ability to intuitively make assumptions about the world around us. This is something we share with (I think) most animals to some degree. I think the ability for higher level reasoning came later, and the "motivated reasoning" is applying higher order reasoning skills to justify intuition. Obviously for complicated situations this approach is faulty as everyone recognizes, but doing more thorough analyzes is harder and often requires additional skills that many may be lacking. So the reasoning then defaults to the intuitive approach.

Not only that. When folks talk about honeybees, they often talk about domesticated species with a narrow genetic diversity. While there are efforts to protect them, often wild honeybee population decline. At least in part it seems that domestic honeybees exert competitive pressure on wild populations, and this could make things worse for them. Or at least not better. Edit: made the comment pre-merge. I am wondering about that. Wouldn't it only work if honeybee and wild bee foraging areas don't overlap? And considering that honeybees are also used widely as pollinators in Ag, wouldn't a strengthen honeybee population increase, rather than decrease pressure on remaining wild populations?

Of course. The only caveat is when the studies are poor, fraudulent and/or unethical (Wakefield comes to mind) or if they are sponsored by groups with vested interest (e.g., Philip Morris, 3M etc.). However, over time (usually science's self-correction feature kicks in, though it can be a slow process.

I have been working on PFAS in the past, and the effects subtle (i.e. it is not one of the easier to discern acutely toxic chemicals). But an emerging theme is disruption of lipid metabolism, that especially in children could potentially lead to long-term effects. And there has been a long history of many potential exposures that are ongoing and where industries are rather unwilling to react to. Some of the deadliest are air pollution, which in all likelihood are most associated with premature deaths of all exposures. The issues range from large-scale pollution (e.g. coal plants) to more subtle in-home pollution (e.g. cooking with poor ventilation, lead paint etc.). The solution to that is not trying to heal folks somehow magically. The solution is to reduce exposure. Theoretically, agencies like the EPA would try to achieve that. But as we can see, even folks who go to the deep end of exposure related things (mostly because they are too lazy to read up on facts) are not really that much into regulating air and water and instead focus on stupid flashpoints without evidence (e.g. tylenol). I.e. the issue is less a medical one, but one of industrial (and other) regulation.

There are in fact many more than six species that don't have the equivalent of a heart. I do not quite understand the selection in the article, nor why the first image is of a cuttlefish, which, IIRC has actually three hearts (one for central circulation and two for each gill). Phylogenetically, among the main lineages of animals (animalia) IIRC only the bilateria (and not all of them, flatworms are mentioned in the article, for example) have a heart. Though to be fair, bilateria is the phylum with the most known species. But considering that the first line in OP is already false I guess there is reason to continue down the road.