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Stick to the subject. What country is invading, destroying and trying to annex another sovereign country, right now ? The American President can go nearly everwhere in the world without fear of being targeted for assassination ( well, maybe not D Trump ). Where can V Putin go ?

In this model, every fundamental fermion or boson has an associated string vibration. Not all particles are fundamental; some are composite. You are trying to get a very simplistic understanding of a very complex subject; not going to happen. Start here Superstring theory - Wikipedia

In Superstring theory, all fundamental fermions ( particles ) and bosons ( forces ) are the result of differing vibrational frequencies of even more fundamental, Planck scale, supersymmetric 'strings'. A composite particle, such as a neutron, would be the result of the vibrational interactions of the constituent quark/gluon strings. A more generalized version, M Theory, and 'branes', considers the implications of some strings being a 'closed loop' and some 'open ended'.

That would be Dr. Vinnie Boombotz ...

Exactly the same way Russia extended her borders from the Kievan Rusus area about 10 centuries ago, all the way to the Pacific and beyond ( alaska ? ) Kievan Rus' - Wikipedia In which case the Ukraine was the 'birthplace' of today's Russia. But why bring the past into the discussion ? Should we compare the behaviour of the Mongol Hordes of Genghis Khan? ( for a 'local' example ) Or the behaviour and conquests of the Roman Empire ? Or the Macedonian Greeks of Alexander the Great ? Or maybe you want to go back to Homo Sapiens displacing Homo Neanderthalis in Europe 35-50 000 years ago, to excuse the fact that TODAY, Russians are invading a sovereign country. n

I think you mean the USSR, not Russia. That happened already in 1989; Get over it already. And stop trying to re-aquire all those now sovereign countries, like the Ukraine, that despise your brutality, and want to govern themselves.

There is none. Quantum field theory by necessity, requires quantum particles, as both 'carriers' and 'manifestation' of the field. If you are inquiring about classical felds, what particles did you wish to consider ?

Circumstances may be different, but the argument can be made that vacuum energy is the impetus for both. That is if the accelerating expansion turns out to be real, and not a figment of error, or the accuracy of our type !a supernova 'yardstick'.

I remember reading how S Chandrasekhar first calculated the electron degeneracy limit, on his way from India by boat, to England, to study under Sir A Eddington. He considered confining an electron to a smaller and smaller box, such that its momentum becomes more and more indeterminate. An early use of the then new HUP, or QM applied to classical physics. At some point the box determines its position enough, that the velocity component of its momentum could be faster than light; a clearly unphysical situation. The electron can then absorb into a proton to become a neutron, which, for the same size confinement ( positional accuracy ), and momentum uncertainty, allows the velocity to be up to 2000 times smaller, as its mass is 2000 times larger. At least until neutron degeneracy is reached. Speculation about quark stars don't make much sense to me, in light of the previous arguments, as they involve going to a much lighter fermion, and unphysical velocities again. But I'm no expert on QCD, and have no idea whether these quarks would act as 'free' particles, or as a massive'combined' particle.

Ahh ... Brings back memories of Thermodynamics classes, so many years ago. Haven't heard 'Gibbs Free Energy' for about 40 years, and I work with Chemical Engineers, and a few Chemists, daily.

Not the transport price you need to worry about. The tariffs Canada imposes on cheap, but good, American cheeses, in an effort to 'protect' the Quebec dairy racket ( and one of the reason D Trump went after NAFTA ), is what keeps our prices high. Best prices on imported "Parmeggiano Reggiano", in Canada, is Costco. ( I like hard cheeses, with crusty Italian bread, and 'Amarone' wine )

Hope she runs as an independent in the 2024 elections. If nothing else, she will draw away some of the conservative votes from the Republicans, making sure D Trump doesn't win the Presidency again.

As the energy supplied by the universe's drop ( slow roll ) from false zero vacuum energy, to true zero level, after the E-W symmeetry break becomes less and less, the exponential inflation also decreases. That is simple enough to understand. Much less understood is the mechanism for the recently detected accelerating expansion of the last few billion years. Perhaps oscillations about the true zero vacuum energy level ?

Never heard of Jarlsberg cheese. But I love cheese, and having naturally low cholesteral levels, often eat it to the point of constipation. I used to drink two quarts of milk per day when younger, but now as little as a few ounces with cereal, gives me bad gas and stomach cramps. I have heard of ( and tried often ) Carlsberg beer.

Magnetic storage drives use magnetic domains, while SSDs use 'flash' which stores electrons in 'traps' of 2 or more voltage levels. They are usually cleared by re-formatting, which essentially wipes the index of the stored data. A good recovery program can still read this data, unless over-written, and good wiping programs usually over-write all the data to prevent this ( but that may take a while with >terabyte HDDs ).

My understanding as a Physicist, not a Chemist or Chem Engineer For chemical bonds, which involve electron interactions, the bound state is always lower energy than the free state.

My mistake also. Didn't realize the OP specified chemical bonds. I was also considering nuclear bonds in fission.

Don't get iyour Cosmology from YouTube ( although PBS Space-Time is very good ). Space-time has no geometry ( does not exist ) prior to the Planck era ( about 10-43 sec ), so speaking of 'before' is non-sensical. Information is limited to the speed of light, so no information can be obtained from any region that is not in causal contact ( moving away faster than the speed of light ) no matter how you juggle the information. The last time the universe would have been in causal contact was before the exponential inflationary period, so as to establish homogeneity, but, as this was at 10-35 sec, I doubt there were any civilizations already that could pass on information.

The transforms relate different inertial frames of reference. These frames have a velocity relative to each other, and that is the v you see ( as well as in the gamma factor ), relating the x position to the x' position.

The first proposed mechanism, was by Alan Guth in the 80s, who postulated the Electro-weak symmetry break allowed the universe to drop down to a lower energy state from a previous false zero state. This released energy ( of the drop ) powered the inflationary phase from 10-35 to 10-32 sec. The residual energy of the drop may still be active as the Cosmological Constant, or Dark Energy. There have been many inflationary models proposed since then, as they solve many problems such as isotropy, homogeneity, apparent flatness, and even the scarcity of magnetic monopoles. The inflaton is a mathematical construct which simplifies the theory/calculations; whether real, or not, is not important as it's a 'model'.

Systems tend to their lowest energy state. Sometimes that's a bound state, sometimes it's a 'free' state. Energy is released ( I use exothermic, but Studiot is correct ) to get to lower energy states.

As Markus explained, the geometry is very different. For a Black Hole, the 'singularity' is always in the future. For the universe, the Big Bang 'singularity' is in the past.

Nobody invests this kind of money without expecting a 'return'. Jared Kushner got a 2 billion dollar investment from the Saudi Crown Prince. 'He's Cashing In': Kushner Firm Gets $2 Billion From Saudi Fund Run by Crown Prince (commondreams.org) Maybe the Saudis are buying nuclear information to keep up with the Israelis and Iranians ??? Purely speculative.

Just like in Relativity, Frames of Reference do matter. Nobody is a 'loony' when viewing themselves, in their own FoR. Looniness is only perceived from an external observer, or external FoR.

That would be my thinking also. D Trump has shown himself to be very vindictive, if he feels he's been wronged. These classified files were nothing more than 'leverage'.