Revenged

I'm not sure some people understand fully... The underlying problem was created because the FDA only approved BiDil for blacks in 2005... You legally cannot prescribe BiDil to whites in america... However, the two generic drugs within BiDil are prescribed separately to whites - but you cannot give them in combination... {e.g. isosorbibe dinitrate is a simple vasodilator to treat angina... hydralazine is an anti-hypertensive and reduces blood pressure (also by vasodilator)...} The apparent reason that the combination of the two is only prescribed to blacks is not because they work better on blacks than whites (which is what many of you are implying)... The fast majority, if not all, of white people with heart failure are also taking vasodilator drugs and if anything they work better in white people... The reason they are given is that other standard treatments, such as ACE inhibitors, don't work as well in blacks and so they are given an alternative (e.g. in America - BiDil)... It's that simple... In my opinion the FDA should have just approved the drugs for everyone since they can be prescribed separately... and then this problem wouldn't have occurred...

take two paracetamol instead...

ok soz... i misread it as 'antibiotics neutralise the virus and prevent it spread to new cells'...

Yes I know... but prescribed antibiotics specifically target bacteria and not viruses...

That's a load of nonsense about the left and right hermispheres pioneer... You are just making things up... You are always getting in sensory information - to both hemispheres - it's actually exceptionally percise... It's just that your brain only filters out the important information... When you are on deaths door - like in a possible car crash - your brain doesn't filter out sensory information... It takes it all in because it's a near death experience and we have evolved to not die... Simple as... The apparent heightened senses in the 'fight or flight responce' is nothing to do with the body's internal circadian rhythm...

German measels (rubella) is a good example of this... It has a few weeks incubation period where no immue responce is made and it can infect a foetus with devastating consequences... http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congenital_rubella_syndrome Btw, viruses are primarily delt with by the innate immune system (e.g. macrophages and neutrophils)... The anti-body responce via production of antibodies from b lymphocytes is important for protection against bacteria but not viruses... Foetuses definitely do have an immune system to provide protection against viruses and if you want to know more about the immunity of a foetus then look into the development of the bone marrow and the thymus gland... There is good reason why antibodies don't cross the placenta... For example, where the mother has group A blood and the foetus has group B blood (thus you need to prevent the anti-B antibodies crossing the placenta)... but this indeed does happen... The most common is Rhesus disease... This is haemolytic disease of the newborn caused by rhesus negative mothers giving birth to their second rhesus positive child due to anti-rhesus antibodies crossing the placenta... http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemolytic_disease_of_the_newborn

You need to talk to a neurologist... Not a malpractice lawyer ...

It is just simple osmosis... It draws water out...

Diabetes is caused by lack of insulin or insulin resistance... ketones do not cause diabetes... in this question the woman is pregnant... this must be 'gestational diabetes'... it is similar to type II diabetes... i.e. problem with insulin resistance and not insulin production... Ketone production is simply an effect of diabetes... As you said - fat is used as an energy source and non-esterified fatty acids are produced... but it is because there is excess fatty acids in the liver and inadequate fatty acids supplied to muscle that the liver produces ketones... So back to your question... this women is 'tired', I think the assumption is she is in the 'starving state'... i.e. utilising mainly fat as an energy source thus ketone production is high... Take in sucrose... Sucrose is broken down into fructose and glucose... In the short term, glucose is used as an energy source and replaces fat... since in gestational diabetes, there is still insulin production and so this is possible... this leads to decreased ketone production... The long term, i'm not sure... I would guess that there is not enough energy produced from the glucose and so the body has to go back to using fatty acids as an energy source and ketones increase...

I'll give you some pics to make it clearer... Pec major causes the arm to be pulled in (adduction) http://www.medtrng.com/abductionadduction.gif Pec major causes the arm to be moved forwards (flexion) http://www.3dscience.com/img/Products/Images/clip_art/skeletal_flexion_extension_web.jpg And lastly pec major also causes internal rotation http://www.orthop.washington.edu/_Rainbow/Album/10357m6f855b57-6ae2-4451-b416-d2e74a1cdcf7.jpg All movements of the arm tend to involve combination of muscles with a combination of movements... but pec major is not involved in abduction...

Yes, that's right... The body physiological responce to cardiac failure is to increase blood pressure and heart rate - which actually makes the heart failure worse... This is why all the treatments (beta blockers, ACE inhibitors, diuretics...etc) aim to prevent the body increasing blood pressure and heart rate... The exception here is digoxin... but that isn't much good...

Cardiogenic shock is a result of the heart not getting enough oxygen and blood flows to the heart during diastole (i.e. when the heart is not contracting) and so increased heart rate and increasing blood pressure will not increase perfusion of the heart... It would decrease it and will make the cardiogenic shock worse... Anapylatic shock is caused by severe bronchoconstriction due to an allergen causing a severe inflammatory responce... The airways can swell up to such an extent that they are completely blocked and it can kill...

We have the same in the UK... Migraleve yellow is just co-codamol... Co-codamol tablets can be bought for 75p for 32 tablets whereas Migraleve yellow is £3.50 for fewer tablets... but both are exactly the same... But it's the same is true for paracetamol, ibuprofen, anti-histamines...etc. In fact most drugs brought at the pharmacy have a cheaper unbranded version that is identical to the branded version...

also allergy with anaphylatic shock...

Yes... That's what I mean... It is an issue with money... Particularly in the UK where the health service is in a major financial crisis... Where maternity services and accident emergency are being theatened to be cut at many hospitals - including my local hospital - the NHS goes and spends 20 million pounds on refunishing the Royal homeopathic hospital.... I think they got their priorities wrong!... If you are saying that it is wrong (i.e. unethical) that money is spend on homeopathic remidies when they can be spend on anti-cancer drugs (which aren't being funded by the NHS) then I will agree with you... But I don't think that is unethical to use homeopathy as a method of giving placebo medicines to people...

This doesn't happen in the NHS... GPs only refer people to the homeopathic hospital here in london if they've done the standard treatments and it didn't work and there's nothing more they can do for them... most people have things like IBS, chronic fatigue, anxiety, allergy and the GPs have nothing more they can do for them... and I think most consultations are private referals... Homeopathic treatments are also given out in pharmacies... Cost about 4 quid for 30 sugar tablets but I didn't see any harm in them selling placebos... I certainly wouldn't call it unethical... As for the homeopathic hosptial they employ doctors and they also carry out the standard tests (bloods, X-ray, scans...etc.) to ensure there is no underlying problem that needs to be treated at a real hospital... I agree in the 'alternative' world it can be dangerous and there are a lot of crazy people around the world that claim they can cure cancer, AIDS and they get people to stop medical treatments... but this isn't what happens when alternative medicine is incooporated into medical practice... It is what happen when it isn't incooporated into medical practice... To the original poster... I would say it is more of a question on best use of money - not ethics...

I think some of you need clarification about alcohol metabolism... It's quite straight forward... Ethanol -> Ethanal (acetylaldehyde) -> Acety-CoA Alcohol is unlike most substances in pharmacology as it has 'zero kinetics'... Most drugs have 'first order kinetics' where the excretion of the substance doubles if the quantity in the blood doubles... However, this is not the case with alcohol... It excretion is dependend upon levels of enzymes (such as alcohol dehydrogenase) that are saturated with ethanal... Therefore alcohol metabolism occurs at an approximately constant rate... It is approximately constant because various sex, weight, metabolic rate...etc. However, chronic alcohol use does not increase metabolism of alcohol... but you do get tolerance to it's effects... for example, chronic alcoholics can tolerate alcohol and can have blood alcohol concentrations that would kill the average joe blogs three times over...

Abundance of potassium ions causes resting potential too become more negative (hyperpolarisation)... this stops activity of nerves... If you add more Na+ ions to a nerve maybe it would increase the frequency of action potentials... but the action potential never changes... it is 'all or nothing'...

i think 21) is asking for the difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes... e.g. prokaryotes have smaller ribosomes, DNA not in a nucleus, no mitochondria...etc.

Ok, i get you... Cheers

Tyrosine is an amino acid precursor for two neurotransmitters and adrenaline Tyrosine -> L-DOPA -> Dopamine -> Noradrenaline -> Adrenaline Tyrosine (amino acid) is hydroxylated by tyrosine hydroxylase to form L-DOPA L-DOPA isn't an amino acid... It is carboxylated to form Dopamine Parkinson's disease is a disease where there is death of the dopaminergic neurones in the brain... The main treatment involves increasing dopamine levels in the brain but since dopamine cannot pass the blood brain barrier it cannot be used... This is why L-DOPA (the precursor of dopamine) is given as treatment for Parkinson's... L-DOPA is given with carbidopa, which is a peripherally acting (i.e. doesn't cross the blood brain barrier) DOPA-decarboxylase inhibitor... This prevents formation of dopamine in the peripheral nervous system - preventing side effects (e.g. nausea) I'm not sure about decarboxylating proteins...

I just checked and you were right about the Na+-K+ pump... I apologise ... Just ignore what I said before... No, you misunderstood... Perhaps I didn't explain clearly enough... I know that there is a change of potential difference... I'm not suggesting that Na+ opening doesn't cause depolarsation or K+ opening doesn't cause repolarisation... What I was trying to say was that action potential is only detectable at the axon membrane... It's only the edge of the membrane that there is a massive change in potential difference... The action potential is a propigation of sodium ions along the axonal membranes... In the middle of an axon I don't think much happens at all and the overall concentration of solutes within a neurone is pretty stable as all the activity only occurs on the surface membranes of the axon and it is over very quickly (~several millisecs)... sorry i can't find any references on this... but i think that the overall change in concentration is very small (~0.01mM???)... I think it's a common misconception is that the entire neurones depolarises and repolarises during an action potential when it reality it only happens at the membrane of the axon... That was all...

Perhaps I am ... I don't think it really maters though...

I agree that there are definitely some environmental explanations due to why East Africa produces good runners... I know someone mentioned different muscle types... Another explanation why East Africa produces sprinters is that many of the East African sprinters were brought up in high altitude villages... If you are at high altitude for long periods the number of red blood cells in the body increases to counteract fact that there is less oxygen in the air at altitude... More red blood cells means more oxygen to muscle and so it is increases stamina... So you can run for longer...

Course I'm correct... I'll explain a bit... The reason why the membrane goes from hyperpolarisation to resting potential is because of the closure of potassium channels... It occurs passively... http://www.scielo.cl/fbpe/img/bres/v39n3/fig20.gif Look at the graph in the link... You can see that the conductance (movement of ions) of potassium falls... - Closure of potassium channels - Reduces potassium movement into the cell down the concentration gradient - Causes the membrane to become less negative - This causes the membrane potential to change from being hyperpolarised to the resting potential... I was told that this alone explains the change in potential difference... The action of the Na+/K+ pump during an action potential is minimal and the concentration of Na+ and K+ within nerve cells essentially remains the same before and after an action potential as there is basically no difference on the overall concentration of sodium and potassium within the neurone before and after the action potential (only at the membrane of a neurone does the potential difference of the membrane changes)... All activity in an action potential is due to the massive permeability changes in the membrane and the mass opening and closing of Na+ and K+ channels... A lot of people think that the action potential is caused by changes in potassium and sodium ion levels within neurones but this is not the case... it would be physiological impossible to get such dramatic changes of ions in cells within ~1ms (the time an action potential takes)... I think the Na+/K+ pump is only important in maintaining the overall concentration of Na+ and K+ within the cell and this is all... It's main role is ensuring that the resting potential is maintained... but as i said before, the concentration of Na+ and K+ in neurones barely changes before and after an action potential and so the overall effect of Na+/K+ pump is pretty much nothing when compared to the reduction in permability of potassium... Does that make sense?