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There are two approaches here, the formal one and the brain-compatible one. 1) Formally: Realize that there are hidden coordinate dependencies. You are probably looking to construct a function p(y). Since y is the coordinate at the lower side, you have p(y) at the lower edge and p(y+dy) at the upper. This is (possibly) slightly different from p(y) (because of the displacement dy). If you call the difference dp, then p(y+dy) = p(y) + dp(y) = p + dp (note that dp can and will be negative). 2) Brain compatible: Put the equation first and then define the variables: The forces on top and bottom should cancel out. There force up is the pressure force p*A from below. The force from up is the pressure force p2*A from above the small fluid element plus the weight dw of the small fluid element. Since we are talking about infinitesimal coordinates, and since p(y) should be a function, it makes sense to say that p2 = p+dp, which you can then integrate over.

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Any of the above! It could be either a completely new theory that "replaces" GR, or it could be a realisation that a particular small tweak is needed, or it could be the discovery of completely new particles, forces, or something not yet thought of.

There is another related paper that our local region may be an underdensity region which would account for some of the discrepancies https://arxiv.org/pdf/1907.12402.pdf

The Universe is infinite - its always been here here - and yet you get banned in this room for writing the truth.